The shortcomings experienced in the adult learning system syllabi that Dissertation

The shortcomings experienced in the adult learning system syllabi that is implemented by prisons departments - Dissertation Example This essay discusses that the British prison educational system has many challenges to overcome if it desires to address its mandate of rehabilitating prisoners. The British government must deal with the fact that the vast majority of the people it incarcerates have tremendous learning problems, including suffering from high levels of illiteracy and innumeracy than the general population. As a result, education in prisons is filled with many obstacles that the British government, staff, and prisoners must overcome. In order to ascertain the efficacy of its educational programmes in prison, the British government provides tests and diagnoses to seek if it can remedy the problems of prison learning. The issue of evaluating inmates remains a central concern for the prison educational system because of the particular characteristics of inmates that impact their learning, including the fact that some serve shorter sentences versus longer sentences, the lack of funding for classes, the abs ence of a system of transferring school records to the next prison, the lack of a uniform educational system for all, the constraints of prison life, the lack of access to the Internet and library, the lack of high level courses, etc. All of these factors and more militate against inmates learning in the prison educational system. However, in giving these tests, the thesis of this dissertation argues it has uncovered even more problems in terms of making these prisoners take them over and over again, which is called repetitive assessment diagnosis. Finally, it makes recommendations on how to address this problem. The construction of the syllabi design and implementation should not have any items that will cause monotony, such as repetition. Major academic theories of syllabi design and the implementation argue that the learning environment of learners may be definitive of the actual outcome of the learning. Repetition serves as a particular problem of the prison educational system w ith compromising syllabus implementation for inmates. One of the problems that plague the prison educational system is the routine practice of the relocation of prisoners and their subsequent successive subjection to diagnostic assessments. On the other hand, it underscores plausible solutions with respect to the prison educational system in the United Kingdom. With the collaboration of A4E (Action for Employment), adult education system, and prison’s setting training are carried out. The concept of assessment in the learning process and its coordination in successive procedures are important in facilitating education among students. The learning experience of students should to be facilitated with the use of assessment techniques that encourage active participation. Repetition in assessments could result in alienation and loss of interest from students. A well designed assessment should facilitate self-evaluation and progression in personal development rather than be punitiv e and repetitive. This study examines the problems in the prison educational system of the United Kingdom in regards to the assessment failures in its tests, especially in regards to repetitive evaluations of transferred prisoners. In order to understand the impact of successive

US Intervention in Somalia, 1992 Essay Example for Free

US Intervention in Somalia, 1992 Essay The 1992-1993 intervention of the US forces, with UN authorization, in the fractured country of Somalia is a complex issue not just in terms of Somalian domestic politics, but also the constellation of foreign entanglements that were involved in this strategic part of the world. This brief essay will attempt to answer some key questions about the conflict itself, the American role and the diplomatic and power struggles internationally, especially given the strategic location of Somalia on the Indian Ocean trade routes and the controlling interest in the mouth of the Red Sea. The conflict itself is rather straightforward. The dictatorship of Said Barre was an eccentric one, since he attempted to combine the Islamic movement with that of Marxian socialism. But Barre, in this tribally fractured society, found himself at loggerheads with the powerful Hawiye tribe, as well as certain Islamic factions operating within the country, eventually to develop the Somali National Alliance (SNA), which, for reasons to be described below, became the main target of the American wrath. Concerning the basic structure of the conflict using the typology of Kriesberg, his concern for â€Å"interests and values† is very important, since the basic struggle, outside of its tribal basis, was one of independence from the west. If the SNA were to be victorious, than the US might well be shut out of this strategic area, and a hostile power would come into play, just when the US had helped oust the hated Marxist dictator in Ethiopia, Mengistu Hailie Maram. It is the contention of this writer that this specific reason underlies the entire US intervention in 1992-1993. But apart from interests and values, it seems that the Civil War in Somalia was a zero-sum battle, in that the Islamic movement had a very different agenda than the pro-Ethiopian movement. The victory of one meant the automatic loss for the other. The organizations themselves were both tribal and ideological, centering around the destiny of Somalia relative to the Arab-Israeli conflict, where the Muslims rejected the US presence in support of Israeli interests and the pro-western side sought to use Ethiopia to eliminate the Islamic movement of General Farah Adeed. Hence, in Kriesberg’s terms, these organizations were basically bi-focal, with two mutually exclusive agendas that eventually, in 1993, permitted the US government to hold that the Islamic movement is the great threat to Somalia (cf Kreisberg’s typology, 2006, 7-14). Now, the basic issues in the conflict concern, first of all, the actors themselves. After the disastrous war with Ethiopia in the late 1980s, the Barre regime in Somalia tottered, and eventually was overthrown by an military organization, backed largely by the Hawaye tribe, the United Somali Congress (USC). They overthrew Barre, but were incapable of managing the post-war world. Hence, the development of the Civil War and the rise of Addid’s SNA. The CIA maintained a major post in Kenya, and the US maintained a air base in Ethiopia where spy planes can traverse the Middle East (Griswold, 2007). After the overthrow of the communist DERG state in Ethiopia in 1991, the western backed government intervened regularly in the conflict within the US frame of reference. Hence, it seems that the American approach was to either restore Barre in power or create a coalition of anti-Adeed forces (preferably led by militia leader Ali Mahdi (US Army, 10). None of this worked, and Adeed seemed to emerge from the conflict victorious, as he played upon the anti-colonialist struggle against the United States and successfully engendered hatred against the US (Kaemph, 2007). Therefore, in general, the Somali war pitted Adeed’s forces against both the Ethiopians and the United States. In addition, the state of Eritrea was also involved, and received both Israeli and American backing from its independence against he former communist government of Ethiopia. Hence, the Eritreans were used against the Adeed government and the state itself became a base for the anti-Islamic movement. Eritrea was very useful for the United States and Israel (who certainly had an interest in the Red Sea being open to western trade), since they fought with the Islamic government of Sudan, and became a part of the peace-keeping efforts of the US in that country, also with the ultimate purpose to eliminate the influence of the anti-US and anti-Israeli Islamic movement. Hence, the causes of the conflict and the American intervention are woven within the functioning of the actors themselves within an international context. To put it simply: the US, the UN and Israel supported Ethiopia and Eritrea (though these two have fought in the past), as well as what was left of the Barre regime. Barre himself had offered several oil concessions to American oil firms not to long before his overthrow, and hence, the major oil firms and the US government had an interest in his movement, discredited thought it was (Kretzman, 2003). The major purpose was to keep any coalition that could be formed by Adeed and the anti-US forces under both a nationalist and Islamic banner. The US Army holds in its official account of the war that psychological operations (PSYOPS) were the order of the day in the Somali countryside. This ominous methodology is not elaborated upon in the Army’s description of events (US Army, pub 70-81-1, p 10). At the same time, the CIA was providing the basic logistical support for the intervention out of Kenya. Given this background, the major issues that motivated the American intervention might be reduced to four. First, the control of any oil found in Somalia and, more importantly, the massive oil reserves of Sudan. The two conflicts are very similar in that both Omar Bashir and Adeed are anti-US and anti-Israel, and are fighting for a country that has at least some oil reserves that can be exploited. Secondly, both the US and Israel have an interest in keeping Islamic movements out of power in this strategic area, since such movements may well join with Iran and Russia against American oil interest in the area. Third, to maintain a secular and pro-western state in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. Fourth, to keep friendly powers in charge of Somalia in order to keep both the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean free of hostile powers, since major shipping goes though these areas, and importantly, oil shipping. But similarly, this is all based on a certain geography: Somalia is highly strategic for the above reasons–this eastern horn of Africa sits upon oil and major shipping lanes that cannot fall to hostile powers. But the area of the US intervention, it should be noted, only developed in the extreme south and west of the country, not accidentally the area bordering Kenya, where the CIA maintains a large base and listening post (Griswold, 2007). The US, as part of its PSYOP mentality, hit the radio stations belonging to Adeed, as well as attempting–unsuccessfully–to harm his infrastructure. The reality of the situation is, in the chaos of the war, the Islamic movement of Adeed developed his own social services and social infrastructure, not unlike Hamas in Palestine. To destroy this became the main purpose of the 1992-1993 intervention and largely dictated the popular hostility of the masses to American intervention. Adeed successfully created his own anti-PSYOP mentality by holding the Islamic faith and using nationalist ideas to mobilize the country to his cause. Hence, the nonsense about feeding the â€Å"starving masses† should not even be taken seriously, since the only man who successfully rebuilt at least a modicum of social services became the main target of US attacks (Kaemph, 2007). Hence, several things can be said in conclusion. First, oil is an important issue here, both in Sudan and Somalia. This is one of the most important motivating influences behind the intervention in 1992. But this oil is not sitting in the ground, it is being shipped worldwide, and hence, the Indian Ocean routes near Africa and the Red Sea both need to be kept open, and hence, Somalia, Eritrea and Ethiopia are central actors here. Second, the Eritreans were encouraged in their independence drive under the communist DERG state in Ethiopia by both the US and Israel so as to maintain a pro-western state there. Eritrea hence, sought to support the US in the conflict with the purpose of maintaining its independence and legitimacy. The Islamic forces in Sudan and the SNA wanted an Islamic and nationalist state to fight the west and the Israelis. For the US, this was unacceptable and might be the central issue in the entire American mentality of the time. The reality is that Adeed won–and he won using anti-colonial rhetoric that saw the US as invaders, not interveners. Third, the American PSYOP organization, with CIA backing fizzled. They failed to convince the population that the US was their friend. The very fact that Adeed’s own infrastructure was attacked proved to most that the US was there for the sake of realpolitik, not humanitarian aid, a rather silly â€Å"official† story from Washington, given the strategic nature of the area. Since PSYOPS are little more than brainwashing, Adeed certainly seems to have the moral high ground here–he had the money and the power, as well as the support and military training to make his movement work. Insofar as Kriesberg’s organization typology (cf pg 12), the reason for the American intervention is that it seemed that Adeed’s forces could not be beaten. His main opponent, and a recipient of US money, Mahdi, had no real military training and was no match for Adeed (US Army, 10). The former forces of Barre were also fractured and demoralized, and hence, to keep Adeed out of power, intervention was necessary. But what remains central is that the official reason for the American involvement was not only false, but laughable. Not even an armchair analysis could hold that humanitarianism was the central issue when which globally strategic issues were at stake. An Islamic government in Sudan and Somalia could spell doom for the American interest in the shipping lanes of the area, and might well serve to harm the states of Ethiopia or Eritrea. Israel’s interest were also central, since the US presence in northeastern Africa is substantial and is a major base for operations against he enemies of the Israeli state such as Iraq (formerly) and Iran, not to mention Sudan or even Libya. The US, in short, appeared as an amoral colonial invader against the genuinely popular Adeed forces. Ultimately, the Somalia failure proved the problematic nature of American post-Cold War foreign policy. First, her official rationale made little sense. Second, the simple battle for American interests will not win the US forces respect throughout the world (Allard, 1995). The nations of the world will work out their own problems without CIA meddling, which only rarely provides a lasting solution (though few could doubt that the fall of Mengistu in Ethiopia was not a good thing). But lastly, what seems to come out of the Somalia failure is the simple fact that the US drive for global empire is doomed to fail, and what should come out of the decay of the bi-polar world is not a uni-polar world or even an multi-lateral one, but the simple concept of self determination for all the nations and people’s of the world according to their own lights, not dictates from Brussels, New York or Washington. Bibliography: Allard, K.. (2005) Somalia Operations: Lessons Learned. Washington: National Defense Griswold, Diedre (Jan 7, 2007) â€Å"Why Somalia has no National State. † Workers World. http://www. workers. org/2007/world/somalia-0111/ (This is a communist publication that should be taken with a grain of salt but it does have some interesting observations about the CIA’s role in the area, as well as Israel’s) Kriesberg, L. (2006). Constructive Conflicts. Rowman and Littlefield. Kretzman, Steve (2003). Oil Security, War and the Geopolitics of United States Energy Planning. Multinational Monitor, Jan/Feb. (http://www. thirdworldtraveler. com/Oil_watch/Oil_Security_War. html) United States Army (nd). The US Army in Somalia. CHM Publication 70-81-1

Effect Of Exercise On Arterial Blood Pressure

Effect Of Exercise On Arterial Blood Pressure The aim of this experiment is to investigate the effects of different intensity of exercise on heart rate and arterial blood pressure in young healthy human subjects. Jumping jack exercise is used in this experiment by increasing the frequency of jumping which are 5, 10, 20, 25 and 30 cycles continuously for 5 sessions. The HR and BP were measured before and after the exercise for the study of hypothesis. Data showed that there is an increase in HR and BP among the subjects. Furthermore, with increasing intensity of exercise, the difference between the values before and after exercise also increased. However, diastolic blood pressure did not show any significant difference. The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart and circulatory system. The heart pumps blood to the organs, tissues, and cells of our body. Oxygen and nutrients are delivered by the blood to every cell of the body. On the other hand, carbon dioxide and waste materials are removed by the blood. It is important to understand the cardiovascular system in order to fully comprehend the physiological effects of exercise on the human body.1 The illustration shows the front surface of a heart, including the coronary arteries and major blood vessels. The heart is a myogenic muscular organ which acts like a pump to continuously send blood to our body cells. It has the shape of an upsided pear. The heart is located between the lungs in the middle of our chest. It has a double-layered membrane called a pericardium. The pericardium acts to protect the heart. The outer pericardium layer is attached by ligaments to our diaphragm and other parts of our body. The inner pericardium layer is attached to the heart muscle. There exists a coating of fluid separating the two layers of the membrane. This allows the heart to move as it beats and yet still be attached to our body.3 In this project, we would like to study the effects of exercise on heart rate and blood pressure. The formulated hypothesis is that exercise will cause an increase in heart rate, an increase in systolic blood pressure and a slight decrease or fairly constant diastolic blood pressure. Heart rate Heart rate is defined by the number of heartbeats per unit time, in minutes. The heart rate of a human being may change depending on the need for oxygen. When oxygen dependency increases, the heart rate increases. When oxygen dependency decreases, heart rate decreases. Heart rate is measured by counting the pulse of the body.4 Blood pressure Blood pressure is defined as the force applied on the walls of the arteries as blood is pumped throughout the body. Pressure is determined by the force and amount of blood being pumped and also determined by the size and flexibility of the arteries. Blood pressure is affected by many factors such as the individuals daily routine, diet, emotional state and posture.5 Blood pressure is measured by a device called the sphygmomanometer. It measures the magnitude of pressure required to block blood flow through an artery. Pressure is applied by the sphygmomanometer which cuffs a persons arm.6 The ideal blood pressure is below 120 over 80 (120/80). The systolic pressure is the number above and the diastolic pressure is the number below. Systolic blood pressure is defined as the blood pressure when the heart is contracting. Specifically, it is the highest arterial pressure during contraction of the left heart ventricle. Diastolic pressure on the other hand measures the pressure exerted by the heart when the heart is at rest. The mean arterial pressure is the average blood pressure of an individual. It can be determined by the following formula: MAP = DP + 1/3(SP DP)7 SP = Systolic pressure DP = Diastolic pressure Protocol From the group of 14 individuals, one individual is selected to take measurements of blood pressure and heart rate of the remaining 13 individuals. The 13 subjects consist of 3 males and 10 females, with an average BMI of 19.49. Firstly, the heart rate and blood pressure of the first individual was measured. Then, 5 cycles of the modified jumping jacks were performed. After the 5 cycles of exercise was performed, the subject was required to sit in an upright position, where blood pressure and heart rate was measured. The subject was also given 3 minutes as resting time. After the resting period, the first individual carried on with an increment of 5 cycles of the same exercise up until 20 cycles.(i.e.: 5 cycles, 10 cycles, 15 cycles, 20 cycles) This was done with the remaining 12 subjects. Standardization Anticipatory period All subjects were required to sleep at least 7 hours before the day of the exercise. No caffeine and alcohol diet has to be consumed 3 hours before the exercise. Subjects were required to eat one banana and one energy bar cracker 3 hours before the exercise was conducted. Proper sports attire was worn by all 13 participants. 5 minutes of resting period was given to each subject. Subjects were required to sit in an upright position while resting. Hand phones were switched off to avoid interruptions while doing exercise. Laughing and eating are prohibited during exercise for more accurate readings. Lastly, all subjects were in good health during exercise and are not under influence of any drugs. Exercise period During the exercise, activities such as laughing, talking and vigorous movements are not allowed. All candidates must keep their hands straight while doing jumping jacks, and must squat completely throughout the course of the exercise. The beat of the metronome was set at 84 beats per minute. Resting period All subjects were not allowed to consume any beverages and no other movements were allowed except the exercise mentioned. A resting period of 3 minutes was given to each subject. The same stopwatch was used to measure the resting period. Heart rate and blood pressure measurement Only 1 person was assigned to measure the blood pressure and heart rate of the 13 participants. Initial heart rate and blood pressure was performed 1 minute before the exercise was conducted. After conducting the exercise, heart rate and blood pressure was measured immediately. The heart rate was measured first followed by blood pressure. All subjects were required to sit in an upright position while getting their heart rate measured. The same sphygmomanometer and stethoscope were used to measure the subjects blood pressure. Methods to measure heart rate and blood pressure Heart rate Firstly, the palm side of the subject was turned facing up. The index finger was placed on the wrist of the subject, approximately 1 inch below the base of the subjects hand. The index finger is pressed down in the grove between the middle tendons and outside bone. A throbbing pulse should be felt. The number of beats was counted for 30 seconds, and multiplied by 2. This will give a heart rate of 1 minute.8 Blood pressure The sphygmomanometer was inflated to a little above 180mm Hg. This collapses the major arteries of the arm. Air is released by turning the air valve. The pressure should drop. When the first throbbing sound was heart, the systolic blood pressure was recorded. The sound heard following the first throbbing sound is the sound of blood flowing through the artery of the arm. This means the systolic blood pressure is higher than the pressure in the blood pressure cuff. The air valve continues to be released until no sound is heard. When no more sound is heard, the diastolic blood pressure is recorded.10 Exercise description Firstly, both feet are put together, with hands down on both sides. Candidates are required to jump to move both feet apart while both hands are raised 90 degrees from the body. They are required to jump again to move feet together and bring both hands together over the head by clapping. The exercise subjects then return to the 2nd position, where both feet are apart and both hands are 90 degrees from the body. Next, candidates then return to the initial position. Lastly, the candidate is required to squat once and then return to position one. Only after performing each of these steps is one cycle considered. Preparation Banana, energy bar cracker, metronome and stopwatch were prepared before the experiment. Type of exercise The exercise is a modified version of jumping jack. All subjects were required to complete the exercise based on the speed set by the metronome. Test subjects 3 male and 10 female students were chosen to carry out this experiment. The subjects are healthy individuals who do not smoke and do alcohol. The mean body weight was 57.69kg and the mean height was 165.19cm. Location of exercise IMU, Skills Centre. Apparatus Sphygmomanometer, stethoscope, stopwatch and metronome Interpretation of results Statistical test The one-way ANOVA turkey test was used to determine whether there were any difference in systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, heart rate and mean arterial pressure between the number of cycles of exercise. Null hypothesis: There is no difference in heart rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure and mean arterial pressure before and after exercise. Alternate hypothesis: There is a difference in heart rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure and mean arterial pressure before and after exercise. (Heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and mean arterial pressure increases, diastolic blood pressure remains the same or decreases slightly) Result interpretation From the results for table 2, it can be seen that the rate of heart rate increases when the number of cycles of exercise increases. Statistically, from the one-way ANOVA turkey test, the calculated p-value for heart rate was lesser than 0.05. If the calculated p-value was lesser than 0.05, this implies that there is a significant difference in heart rate between the number of cycles of exercise. From the graph obtained in figure 1, it can be seen that the heart rate increases steadily when the number of cycles of exercise increases. From the results for table 3, the result is similar to the result of table 2. Systolic blood pressure increases when the number of cycles of exercise increases. From the one-way ANOVA turkey test, the calculated p-value for heart rate was also lesser than 0.05. This implies a significant difference in heart rate between the numbers of cycles of exercise. From figure 1, it can be seen that the heart rate increases steadily when the number of cycles of exercise increases. From the results for table 4, the diastolic blood pressure decreases when the number of cycles of exercise increases. From the one-way ANOVA turkey test, the calculated p-value for diastolic blood pressure was also lesser than 0.05. This implies a significant difference in diastolic blood pressure between the numbers of cycles of exercise. From the figure, it can also be deduced that diastolic blood pressure decreases, however only slightly when the number of cycles of exercise increases. From the results for table 5, the mean arterial blood pressure seems equal throughout the cycles of exercise. When calculating the p-value using one-way ANOVA turkey test, the p-value was higher than 0.05. This implies there is no significant difference in the mean arterial blood pressure between the numbers of cycles of exercise. From the figure, it can also be deduced that the mean arterial pressure doesnt undergo any change as the number of cycles of exercise increases. Discussion Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Heart Rate The heart rate for an individual is 60 to 100 beats per minute. Heart rate per minute will increase depending on the frequency of physical activities the individual carry out. During exercise, muscles undergo aerobic respiration which requires constant oxygen supply. This is because the level of carbon dioxide in the blood increases due to the rising cell respiration of the muscles. Thus, the lack of oxygen results in a huge rush of oxygen intake through the lungs. An impulse is then sent to the sinoatrial (SA) node which causes the heart to beat faster. The increased oxygen intake activates the oxidation of lactic acid into carbon dioxide to be carried away. As a result, the muscles will produce the most amount of energy per mole aerobically.10 Oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions (H+) are detected by chemoreceptors which are located at the medulla oblongata and parts of the peripheral nervous system. When exercising, H+ increases due to the excess carbon dioxide. A rise in H+ concentration activates the chemoreceptors which in turn send impulses to the inspiratory centre to increase breathing rate. Hence, heart rate increases. On the other hand, the lack of oxygen also causes a rise in breathing rate. The peripheral chemoreceptors are activated when large oxygen is reduced. Signals are then sent to the inspiratory centre to increase the breathing rate, and thus heart rate.11 Besides, lactic acid which dissociates into lactate and H+ during anaerobic respiration when exercising also results in a rise is H+ concentration. This in turn increases the heart rate by the same mechanism discussed above.12 Heart rate can also be altered by autonomic nervous system. Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system causes an increase in heart rate as well as other factors such as stroke volume and systemic vasoconstriction.13 The stimulated sympathetic nervous system also acts to release glucose from the liver for energy. During exercise, heart rate rises rapidly due to the activation of sympathetic nervous system.14 Apart from that, the stimulated sympathetic nerves also release catecholamines such as epinephrine and norepinephrine. They work to cause the heart to beat faster by increasing the depolarization of sinus node. This increase of heart rate is known as tachycardia.15 Furthermore, the contractility of the heart muscles will also increase through binding of catecholamines with alpha-adrenegic receptors on the smooth muscles.16 The parasympathetic nervous system opposes the sympathetic nervous system which slows the heart rate especially when physical exertion such as exercise is over. This is due to the release of hormone acetylcholine which hyperpolarizes the membrane and inhibits heart rate. The slowing of heart rate is known as bradycardia.17 When resting after strenuous exercise, both autonomic nervous systems still work continuously to send impulses to the SA node. However, inhibitory is dominance over excitatory. As a result, vagal tone is said to be exhibited by the heart. In addition, if the vagal nerves are not innervating the heart, the heart rate will be slower than it would be.16, 18 Other than that, atrial reflex or known as Bainbridge reflex is initiated during exercise. This reflex involves in increasing the venous return and blood congestion in the atria. By stimulating the SA node and baroreceptor in the atria, the atrial walls are stretched which add on to the force as well as heart rate. As a result, the reflex action leads to a rise in sympathetic stimulation of the heart which in turn increases the heart rate.19 Another factor which contributes to an increase in heart rate is the body temperature. Metabolic rate increases during exercise. This causes the body temperature to rise when the metabolism in the body release energy as heat.15Consequently, sympathetic output at the heart will increase due to the impulses sent by the thermoreceptors to the somatosensory cortex and thus heart rate increase.18 Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Systolic Blood Pressure In this experiment, 13 subjects were required to perform a modified version of jumping jacks at different intensity levels. The exercise was performed in cycles where increased cycles of jumping jacks will increase the intensity of the exercise. The mean blood pressure of an individual depends on the amount of blood flow from the heart throughout the body and the net resistance of blood flow in the arteries of the body. Blood pressure is calculated via the following formula: BP = CO x PVR where, BP= blood pressure CO= Cardiac Output PVR=Peripheral vascular resistance During exercise, exercising muscles produces more carbon dioxide, thus this increases the blood partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2) in the human body. As PCO2 increases, the need of oxygen intake into the human body increases. Oxygen consumption increases when PO2 decreases. Since oxygen is carried by the blood in the form of oxyhaemoglobin, therefore, the body would need to pump in more oxygen to accommodate for the lack of oxygen.20 From the equation BP = CO x PVR, increase in cardiac output increases blood pressure. As systolic blood pressure is the pressure when the heart is contracting, therefore the systolic blood pressure should increase with increasing exercise. During exercise, the systolic blood pressure of each experiment subject is seen to be increasing throughout each cycles of the exercise. From the table, it can be seen that the mean systolic blood pressure increased from 106.5 at resting blood pressure up to 135.5 when the exercise was conducted at 20 cycles. Thus, the experiment supports the claim that exercise increases systolic blood pressure. Effect of aerobic exercise on diastolic blood pressure Diastolic blood pressure is the blood pressure when the heart is relaxing. It is the blood pressure of our artery walls between heart beats. Diastolic blood pressure is affected mainly by blood volume, stroke volume and heart rate.21 Stroke volume (SV) is the difference between end-diastolic volume (EDV) and end-systolic volume (ESV). It is related by the following equation: SV = EDV ESV22 EDV is the volume of blood before the heart contracts and ESV is the volume of blood left in the heart after it contracts. Therefore, SV is the net volume of blood pumped out by the heart in 1 heart beat. During exercise, oxygen consumption increases, therefore the amount of blood needed to pump throughout the body also increases, therefore stroke volume increases during exercise. During exercise, the temperature of the human body increases. When this happens, the body undergoes negative feedback by dilating the arteries in the body. Vasodilation happens to increase the blood supply to around the tissues and also to take away heat from the body. Therefore, during exercise, cardiac output increases whereas peripheral vascular resistance decreases due to vasodilation. Thus, this causes the diastolic blood pressure to remain fairly constant throughout, or decrease slightly. From the experiment, the diastolic blood pressure decreases slightly over the course of exercise. As exercise was conducted, vasodilation could explain the lowering of diastolic blood pressure throughout the exercise. Effect of aerobic exercise on Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) MAP is the average pressure of blood exerted on the walls of the arteries during the whole cardiac cycle. MAP is the product of cardiac output and total peripheral resistance. During exercise, cardiac output increases to meet the metabolic needs of skeletal muscles.23Total peripheral resistance on the other hand decreases due to vasodilation of blood vessels. However, total resistance of systemic circulation is kept constant due to constriction of arterioles in visceral organs such as the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, MAP increases in exercise due to the large increase in cardiac output.7 The equation to derive mean arterial pressure is as follow: MAP = DBP + 1/3 (SBP-DBP)7 Throughout the exercise, systolic blood pressure increases dramatically whereas diastolic blood pressure remains fairly constant or decreases slightly. Therefore, this elevates mean arterial pressure. From the experiment, the mean arterial pressure is fairly constant throughout the experiment. This could be due to the inaccuracy of the measured diastolic blood pressure. Besides that, the exercise could also be switched into a stress test, where subjects are required to perform physical exertion to their limits. A stress test could clearly show mean arterial pressure difference because cardiac output would be at its maximum. From the results obtained, it can be seen that the mean arterial pressure is fairly constant throughout the experiment. This could be due to the inaccuracy of the measured diastolic blood pressure. Besides that, the steady decrease in diastolic blood pressure could also override the increase in systolic blood pressure, thus causing the result of mean arterial pressure to remain constant throughout the experiment. Limitations Due to the limitations of the experiment, the obtained results were not that consistent and accurate when compared to the theoretical results. First of all, the sample size is rather too small and insufficient for statistical interpretation as it consists of just 13 members in the experiment. Gender factor affects the obtained results too. This is due to the imbalance number of females and males in the sample which is 2 males and 11 females. As different genders have different metabolism rate, this contributes to unwanted errors in the results. 10 Other than that, the resting period in between each set of experiment was inadequate due to time constrain. The heart rate and blood pressure were not allowed to return to the resting level before the consequent experiment is carried out. In addition, due to two different people in measuring the heart rate and blood pressure, it leads to variations in determination of the final readings of the results. There might also be confusion of auditory and visual cues especially when hearing for the diastolic pressure. Further Studies In order to improve the studies, a larger sample size can be used to increase accuracy of the results. When a larger sample size is used, more comparisons can be made between the differences of genders, age, BMI, as well as the frequency of exercise. Besides, the time of the resting period can be modified to be longer. This is to ensure that the heart rate and blood pressure have returned to the resting level before the next set of experiment starts in order to reduce the inconsistency of the results. Conclusion From the experiment, the results show that there is an increase in heart rate and systolic blood pressure. However, diastolic heart rate showed a decrease. Calculated mean arterial pressure(MAP) remained constant throughout different exercise intensity. However, this could be due to several reasons discussed as of above.

Aztec Empire :: Pre-Columbian History Culture

Aztec Empire The Aztec Empire was a Native American state that ruled much of what is now Mexico from about 1427 until 1521, when the empire was conquered by the Spaniards. The empire represented the highest point in the development of the rich Aztec civilization that had begun more than a century earlier. At the height of their power, the Aztec controlled a region stretching from the Valley of Mexico in central Mexico east to the Gulf of Mexico and south to Guatemala. The Aztec built great cities and developed a complex social, political, and religious structure. Their capital, Tenochitlan, was located on the site of present-day Mexico City. An elaborate city built on islands and marsh land, Tenochtitlà ¡n was possibly the largest city in the world at the time of the Spanish conquest. It featured a huge temple complex, a royal palace, and numerous canals. After the Spanish conquest, the empire of the Aztec was destroyed, but their civilization remained an important influence on the development of Mexican culture. Many present-day Mexicans are descended from the Aztec, and more than 1 million Mexicans speak Nahuatl, the native Aztec language, as their primary language. In Mexico City, searches continue to uncover temple foundations, statues, jewelry, and other artifacts of the Aztec civilization. Aztec refers both to the people who founded the empire, who called themselves Mexica, or Tenochca, and, more generally, to all of the many other Nahuatl-speaking ethnic groups that lived in the Valley of Mexico at the time of the Spanish conquest. The name Aztec is derived from Aztlan, the mythical homeland of the Mexica; according to tradition, Aztlà ¡n was located northwest of the Valley of Mexico, possibly in west Mexico. The name Mexico is derived from Mexica. Long before the rise of the Aztec, the Valley of Mexico was the center of a highly developed civilization. A fertile basin, the valley was located 7800 ft above sea level. In its center lay five interconnected lakes dotted with marshy islands. From about AD 100 to 650 the valley was dominated by the city of Teotihuacan, center of a powerful religious, economic, and political state. After the decline of Teotihuacà ¡n, the Toltec people migrated into central Mexico from the north and established a conquest state there. The Toltec civilization reached its height in the 10th and 11th centuries. In the 13th century wandering bands of Nahuatl-speaking warriors, often called Chichimec, invaded the valley.

Small and Medium Scale Mining

PROJECT TOPICÂ   :Â  SMALL AND MEDIUM SCALE ENTERPRISES DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA (A Case Study of Cassava Processing Industry) PROJECT PROPOSAL BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Interest in the development of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and their contribution in the development process continue to be in the forefront of policy debates in developing countries.The advantages claimed for SMEs are various, including: the encouragement of entrepreneurship; the greater likelihood that SMEs will utilise labour intensive technologies and thus have an immediate impact on employment generation; they can usually be established rapidly and put into operation to produce quick returns. SME development can encourage the process of both inter- and intra-regional decentralisation; and, they may well become a countervailing force against the economic power of larger enterprises.More generally the development of SMEs is seen as accelerating the achievement of wider economic and socio-economic objec tives, including poverty alleviation. Staley and Morse (1965) identify a ‘developmental approach’ to SME promotion which has as its objective the creation of ‘economically viable enterprises which can stand on their own feet without perpetual subsidy and can make a positive contribution to the growth of real income and therefore to better living levels’.This approach emphasises the importance of efficiency in new SMEs. Small producers must be encouraged to adopt new methods, move into new lines of production and in the long-run, wherever feasible, they should be encouraged to become medium- or even large-scale producers. The presidential Initiative on Cassava Production and Export has increased the awareness amongst Nigerians of the industrial crop, popularly referred to as the ‘new black gold’.Started in July 2004, the initiative seeks to generate $5 billion in export revenue. Fortunately, Nigeria, according to the Food and Agricultural Organi sation, FAO, in its 2004 report, is currently the largest producer of cassava in the world at 34 million tons yearly, but with a poor yield of an average of 10 tons per hectare over an estimated cultivated land size of three million hectares.Nigeria is closely followed by Brazil and Thailand, which have a capacity to produce 24 million tons and 20 million tons and a yield of 13. 6 tons per hectare and 19. 4 tons per hectare respectively. Unfortunately, experts at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, IITA, Ibadan, Oyo State, believe that up to half of the harvested cassava is wasted by production and post-harvest inefficiencies while the rest is consumed as food.Brazil and Thailand, which rarely consume the cassava products directly, have fully developed the cassava industry for the export market. | | Nigeria should not focus on the exportation of cassava but develop the enormous local and regional markets for cassava that exist in the country, West African sub-regio n and Africa as a whole rather than start exporting the industrial raw material to Europe. Nigerians should be encouraged to add value and process them for industrial application.The main thrust of this research work shall focus on the development of small and medium scale enterprises in the cassava processing industry justifying the need for agro-processing industries that convert cassava fresh tubers into primary cassava-based commodities that are tradable in domestic and international markets. STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM The Small Scale Industry is acknowledged to have huge potential for employment generation and wealth creation in any economy. Yet in Nigeria, the sector has stagnated and remains relatively small in terms of its contribution to GDP or to gainful employment.Activity mix in the sector is also quite limited – dominated by import dependent processes and factors. Although there is no reliable data, imprecise indicators show that capacity utilization in th e sector has improved perceptibly in the period since 1999, but the sector is still faced with a number of constraints with lack of credit availability as the principal constraint. Credit is the largest element of risk in the books of most banks and failures in the management of credit risk have led to the weakening individual banks and in some cases the banking system as a whole, have contributed, to many episodes of financial instability.OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main purpose of this study is to identify and consequently analyze the most effective and efficient way through which small scale enterprises could be financed and promoted, thereby taking into consideration various conditions such as economic, political, social, psychological e. t. c under which small-scale enterprises are encouraged to operate with particular reference to the cassava processing industry in Nigeria. In so doing, the researcher intends giving an in-depth information and analysis on the various strategie s through which small-scale enterprises can be developed and encouraged.In view of the above, the researcher intends to find out the following: (i) The role played by government towards promotion and development of small-scale enterprises in Nigeria. (ii) To identify the economic potential of small-scale enterprises in the cassava processing industry. (iii) To identify the constraints confronting the development of small-scale enterprises in the cassava processing industry in Nigeria. (iv) To examine the financial support given to SMEs in Nigeria. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The study would examine the following questions: 1.What role does the government play in the promotion and development of small-scale enterprises in the cassava processing industry in Nigeria? 2. What impact do small and medium scale enterprises make to Nigeria’s economic growth? 3. What are the constraints confronting the development of small-scale enterprises in the cassava processing industry in Nigeria? 4. Wha t is the trend of the financial support given to SMEs in Nigeria? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES OF DATA The two main research methods to be used are survey research and content analysis.Survey research method is used to study variables and their relationship as related to human observation and opinions about their experience as it concerns the subject matter of study. Interview schedules shall be applied to some operators while the questionnaire schedule shall be applied to some small-scale entrepreneurs. The data, which would be collected from the questionnaire, will be analysed using the simple percentage method and chi-square, goodness of fit. This will make the analysis of the data more concise and simple. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF STUDY This research covers the area of promoting small and medium scale enterprises n the cassava processing industry, paying attention to the role of the government and other external factors that can affect positively the development of small and medium scale enterprises in Nigeria. The research intends to study the essential problems encountered by small and medium scale operators in the cassava processing industry and suggest ways by which they can be adequately and efficiently financed and promoted. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Small and medium scale enterprises in Africa rely largely on own savings, not only to grow but also to innovate.Firms often need real services support and formal finance assistance, failing which under-investment in long term capabilities (training and R & D) may result, (Oyelaran, 2003). Besides finance, there are critical elements (including: knowledge, skills and experience of staff; capacity and quality of internal facilities; information and knowledge of market; intellectual and managerial leadership; external infrastructure and the incentive system at the micro and macro levels) that are lacking within technology support institutions themselves.These undermine the effectiveness of their support to SMEs. This study is significant because it would help to evaluate the operations of a vital segment of the industrial sector – small and medium scale industries, which have been identified as having very high potential in promoting economic growth and development. The evaluation shall be done with special focus on the small and medium operators in the cassava processing industry in Nigeria thereby adding to the existing literature on the subject matter.OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS In Chapter one, which is the introductory part; the background of the study, the statement of the research problem, the objectives of the study and the methodology to be adopted shall be discussed. Chapter two will deal with the literature review. The methodology analysis and theoretical framework shall be examined in chapter three.Data presentation, analysis and interpretation will be covered in chapter four while the concluding part of the research work will be chapter five where in a nutshell the summa ry, the conclusion and the recommendations would be discussed. REFERENCES Staley E. and Morse R. (1965) Modern Small-Scale Industry for Developing Countries. London: McGraw-Hill Publishing. Oyelaran O. (2003) Financing and Development of Small-sale industries in Nigeria. Central Bank of Nigeria Economic and Financial Review. 24(4), December.

The Uses and Advantages of Corrugated Plastic

The Uses and Advantages of Corrugated Plastic There are two main types of corrugated plastic. Corrugated plastic sheet usually comprises what appear to be three layers - two flat sheets with a ribbed center layer. In fact, they are really two layers, often referred to as twinwall plastic. Corrugated plastic can also mean sheets of plastic which are wave-like in profile and may be reinforced with chopped glass fiber. They are a single layer and used mainly for roofing of garages and outhouses, but gardeners also use them to build sheds. Here we will focus on the twinwall version, also known as a corrugated plastic board or fluted plastic board. How Corrugated Plastic Sheets Are Made The materials used include polypropylene and polyethylene, widely used and versatile thermoplastics. Polypropylene has a neutral ph and is resistant to many chemicals at normal temperatures, but can be dosed with additives to provide a variety of other resistance such as UV, anti-static and fire resistance, for example. Polycarbonate is also used, but this is a much less versatile material, particularly in respect of its relatively poor impact resistance and brittleness, although it is stiffer. PVC and PET are also used. In the basic manufacturing process, the sheet is extruded - that is the molten plastic is pumped (typically with a screw mechanism) through a die which provides the profile. Dies are typical 1 - 3 meters wide, delivering a product of thickness up to 25 mm. Mono- and co-extrusion techniques are used depending on the precise profile required. Advantages and Uses In buildings: Suppliers claim it is an ideal material for storm shutters and that it is 200 times stronger than glass, 5 times lighter than plywood. It does not require painting and maintains its color, it is translucent and does not rot. Clear polycarbonate corrugated sheet is used for roofing sunrooms where its rigidity, lightweight and insulating properties are ideal, and low impact resistance is less of an issue. It is also used for small structures such as greenhouses where its air core provides a useful insulating layer. Humanitarian Relief: The material is ideal for temporary shelters need after flood, earthquake and other disasters. The lightweight sheets are easily transported by air. Easy to handle and fix to wooden frames their waterproof and insulating properties offer rapid shelter solutions when compared to traditional materials such as tarpaulins and corrugated steel sheets. Packaging: Versatile, flexible and impact resistant, polypropylene board is ideal for packaging components (and agricultural produce too). It is more eco-friendly than some molded packaging which cannot be recycled. It can be stapled, stitched and easily cut to shape with a hobby knife. Signage: It is available in a wide variety of colors, is readily printed on (typically using UV printing) and can easily be fixed using a wide variety of methods - its light weight being an important factor. Pet enclosures: It is such a versatile material that rabbit hutches and other domestic pet enclosures are built with it. Fittings such as hinges can be bolted to it; being non-absorbent and easy to clean it offers a very low maintenance finish. Hobby Applications: Modellers are using it to build airplanes, where its light weight combined with rigidity in one dimension and flexibility at right angles provides properties ideal for wing and fuselage construction. Medical: In an emergency, a section of a sheet can be rolled around a broken limb and taped into place as a splint, also providing impact protection and body heat retention. Corrugated Plastic: the Future The uses that this category of board are put to demonstrate its fantastic versatility. New uses are being identified almost every day.  For example, a patent has recently been filed to use layered sheets (alternate layers fused at right angles) in air-to-air heat exchangers. Demand for corrugated plastic is sure to grow, but as many of the plastics used are dependent on crude oil, the raw material costs are subject to the fluctuations (and inevitable growth) of oil prices. This may prove to be a controlling factor.